Troilus
and Cressida is a
tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1602. It was
described by Frederick S. Boas as one of Shakespeare's problem plays. The play
ends on a very bleak note with the death of the noble Trojan Hector and
destruction of the love between Troilus and Cressida. The work has in recent
years "stimulated exceptionally lively critical debate".
Throughout
the play, the tone lurches wildly between bawdy comedy and tragic gloom, and
readers and theatre-goers have frequently found it difficult to understand how
one is meant to respond to the characters. Several characteristic elements of
the play (the most notable being its constant questioning of intrinsic values
such as hierarchy, honor, and love) have often been viewed as distinctly
"modern",
Synopsis
Troilus
and Cressida is set
during the later years of the Trojan War, faithfully following the plotline of
the Iliad from Achilles' refusal to participate in battle, to Hector's
death. Essentially, two plots are followed in the play. In one, Troilus, a Trojan
prince (son of Priam), woos Cressida, another Trojan. They profess their
undying love, before Cressida is exchanged for a Trojan prisoner of war. As he
attempts to visit her in the Greek camp, Troilus glimpses Diomedes flirting
with his beloved Cressida, and decides to avenge her perfidy.
While this
plot gives the play its name, it accounts for only a small part of the play's
run time. The majority of the play revolves around the leaders of the Greek and
Trojan forces, Agamemnon and Priam, respectively. Agamemnon and his cohorts
attempt to get the proud Achilles to return to battle and face Hector, who
sends the Greeks a letter telling them of his willingness to engage in
one-on-one combat with a Greek soldier. Ajax is originally chosen as this
combatant, but makes peace with Hector before they are able to fight. Achilles
is prompted to return to battle only after his protege Patroclus is killed by
Hector before the Trojan walls. A series of skirmishes conclude the play,
during which Achilles catches Hector and has the Myrmidons kill him. The
conquest of Troy is left unfinished, as the Trojans learn of the death of their
hero.
Act 1
Scene 1
The play
opens with a Prologue, an actor dressed as a soldier, who gives us the background
to the plot, which takes place during the Trojan War. Immortalized in Greek
mythology and Homer's Iliad, the war occurs because a Trojan prince,
Paris, has stolen the beautiful Helen from her husband, King Menelaus of Sparta,
and carries her home to Troy with him. In response, Menelaus gathers his fellow
Greek kings, and they sail to Troy hoping to capture the city and reclaim
Helen.
Within the
walls of Troy, Prince Troilus complains to Pandarus that he is unable to fight
because of heartache; he is desperately in love with Pandarus's niece,
Cressida. Pandarus complains that he has been doing his best to further
Troilus's pursuit of his niece, and that he has received small thanks for his
labors. After he departs, Troilus remarks that Pandarus has been growing
irritable lately. As he ponders, the Trojan commander Aeneas comes in, bringing
news about that Paris has been wounded in combat with Menelaus. As the noise of
battle comes in offstage, Troilus agrees to join his Trojan comrades on the
field.
Scene 2
In another
part of the city, Cressida converses with her servant, who recounts how a Greek
warrior named Ajax, a valiant but stupid man, managed to overcome the great
Trojan prince Hector the previous day, and that Hector is fighting furiously
because of this defeat. Cressida is joined by Pandarus, and they discuss the
Trojan princes, with Pandarus taking the unlikely position that Troilus is a
greater man than Hector. As they converse, several Trojan lords pass by them
returning from battle, including Antenor, Aeneas, Hector, and Paris; Pandarus
praises each one, but tells his niece that none of them can match Troilus. He
then leaves Cressida, promising to bring a token from Troilus. Alone, Cressida
says that while she returns Troilus's feelings, she is holding him off; she is
enjoying his pursuit of her.
Scene 3
In the Greek
camp, the great general and king Agamemnon is conversing with his lieutenants
and fellow kings. He asks why they seem so glum and downcast for although their
seven-year siege of Troy has met little success so far, they should welcome the
adversity that the long war represents, since only in difficult times can
greatness emerge. Nestor, the oldest of the Greek commanders, citing examples
of how heroism emerges from hardship. In response, Ulysses expresses his deep
respect for what they have said, but points out that the Greek army is facing a
crisis not because of the duration of the war, but because of a breakdown in authority
within the Greek camp. Instead of being united, they are divided into factions,
Achilles, who refuses to fight and instead sits in his tent while his protege
Patroclus makes fun of the Greek commanders. Others, like Ajax and his
foul-mouthed slave, Thersites, follow this example, and so the entire army is
corrupted. The others agree that this is a great problem, and as they discuss
what is to be done, Aeneas appears under a flag of truce, bringing a challenge
from Hector. The Trojan prince offers to fight any Greek lord in single combat,
with the honor of their respective wives as the issue. The Greeks agree to find
a champion and offer Aeneas hospitality. As Aeneas is led away, Ulysses tells
Nestor that this challenge is truly directed at Achilles, since only Achilles
could match the great Hector in battle. But to have Achilles fight Hector would
be dangerous, because if Achilles lost, it would dishearten the entire army.
Therefore, Ulysses suggests, they should have Ajax fight Hector instead; even if
Ajax loses, they can still claim that Achilles would have won in his place. At
the same time, by choosing Ajax as their champion, they will infuriate Achilles
and perhaps goad him into rejoining the war, bringing with him all his
soldiers. Nestor, impressed with Ulysses's intelligence, agrees to the plan.
Act 2
Scene 1
In the Greek
camp, Ajax summons his slave, Thersites, and orders him to find out the nature
of the proclamation that has just been posted. Thersites, a foul-mouthed
ruffian, refuses to obey and instead curses his master and the Greeks with
equal vigor, provoking Ajax to beat him. Achilles and Patroclus come upon them
and he includes them in his curses. Offended at Patroclus' request he stop, he
replies "I will hold my peace when Achilles' brooch bids me, shall I?",
the term "in the 16th century meant, among other things, a 'pointed rod,
spit or pricker,'", implying that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers and
further demeaning Achilles' masculinity. They send him away, and Achilles tells
Ajax the news of Hector's challenge to any brave Greek warrior. The selection
of the warrior has been put to a lottery otherwise, Achilles says as he leaves,
he would have been the only possible choice, a remark that produces a sneer
from Ajax.
Scene 2
In Troy, King
Priam and his sons debate the wisdom of continuing the war, when they can end
it by returning Helen to the Greeks. Hector, supported by his brother Helenus,
argues eloquently that while the theft of Helen may have been a brave act, she
cannot be worth the great and bloody price they are paying to keep her. When he
is done speaking, his sister Cassandra, a prophetess who is considered mad,
dashes in and cries that if they do not let Helen go, Troy will burn. When she
is gone, Troilus dismisses her warning as ravings, and argues that they must
keep Helen for the sake of their honor and Paris supports him. Hector retorts
that this is why young men cannot be trusted to make moral decisions. since
passion overwhelms their reason, but Troilus says that Helen is more than a
woman, she is a theme of honor and renown, Hector yields and agrees to continue
the war. He goes on to report the challenge that has been sent out to the
Greeks, and how he hopes it will bring Achilles to the field.
Scene 3
Alone,
Thersites sneers at the pretensions of both Ajax and Achilles. When Patroclus
and Achilles appear, he calls them fools; Patroclus moves to strike him, but
Achilles holds him off. They see the Greek commanders Agamemnon, Ulysses,
Nestor, and Diomedes approaching, accompanied by Ajax, and Achilles quickly
retires to his tent. When Agamemnon asks to see him, Patroclus tells the
general that Achilles is ill. Agamemnon grows angry, but Achilles refuses to
emerge, and tells Ulysses, who goes in to see him, that he still refuses to
fight the Trojans. Agamemnon suggests that Ajax go in and plead with Achilles,
but Ulysses declares that doing so would be insulting to Ajax, and then he,
with the other Greek commanders, praises Ajax profusely, saying that he is the
best of their warriors. They agree to leave Achilles in his tent, and decide
that Ajax will be their champion against Hector the next day.
Act 3
Scene 1
In Troy,
Pandarus converses with a servant while he waits to speak with Paris and Helen.
When they come in, he compliments Helen profusely, and asks her to excuse
Troilus if Priam asks about him at dinner that night. Paris and Helen ask where
Troilus will be dining, and Pandarus refuses to tell him but they both guess that
he will be in pursuit of Cressida, and they make bawdy jokes about it as they
depart to greet the returning warriors.
Scene 2
Pandarus
finds Troilus pacing about impatiently in an orchard, and assures him that his
desire for Cressida will soon be satisfied. He goes out, leaving Troilus giddy
with expectation, and brings in Cressida; after urging them to embrace,
Pandarus departs. Left alone, they profess their love for one another, and each
pledges to be faithful to the other. he reassures her and again pledges to be
faithful, declaring that thereafter history will say of all lovers that they
were as true as Troilus. Cressida declares that if she ever strays from him,
she hopes that people will say of false lovers that they were as false as
Cressidas.
Scene 3
Meanwhile, in
the Greek encampment, Cressida's father, Calchas, who has betrayed Troy in
order to join the Greeks, asks the Greek general to grant him a favor. He asks
that they exchange the Trojan commander Antenor, for his daughter, so that he
might be reunited with her. Agamemnon agrees, and orders Diomedes to supervise
the exchange. On Ulysses's advice, the Greek commanders then file past Achilles's
tent, and scorn the proud warrior, ignoring his greetings and making him
uneasy. He goes to Ulysses and asks him why he is being scorned, and Ulysses
tells him that he is no longer a hero and he will be forgotten quickly. He
tells, and suggests that Achilles could restore his fame and honor if he
stopped dallying with enemy women and took the field. When Ulysses is gone,
Patroclus tells Achilles to follow Ulysses's advice; seeing that his reputation
is at stake, and Achilles agrees. Thersites comes in and reports that Ajax is
now striding about the camp, completely puffed up with his own importance.
Patroclus persuades the foul-tongued slave to talk Ajax into bringing Hector,
safely conducted by Agamemnon, to Achilles' tent after their fight the next
day, so that Achilles may speak with Hector.
Act 4
Scene 1
Diomedes
comes to Troy to make the exchange of Antenor for Cressida, and he is greeted
heartily by Aeneas and Paris. Aeneas goes to fetch Cressida, remarking that
this exchange will deal a heavy blow to Troilus; Paris concurs, but says
regretfully that they have no choice: "the bitter disposition of the time
will have it so. After Aeneas is gone, Diomedes is asked who he thinks deserves
Helen more Paris or Menelaus? With great bitterness, the Greek replies that
both deserve her, since both are fools, willing to pay a great price in blood
for a whore.
Scene 2-3
Meanwhile, as
morning breaks, Troilus takes a regretful leave of Cressida while she pleads
with him to stay a little longer. Pandarus comes in and makes several bawdy
jokes about their recent lovemaking; suddenly, there is a knock at the door,
and Cressida hides Troilus in her bedroom. Aeneas enters, and demands that
Pandarus fetch Troilus. When the young prince emerges, Aeneas tells him the sad
news that Cressida must be sent to her father in the Greek camp. Troilus is
distraught, and goes with Aeneas to see his father, Priam, while Pandarus
breaks the news to Cressida, who begins to weep.
Scene 4
Troilus
brings Diomedes, together with the great lords of Troy, to Cressida's house,
and begs leave to say goodbye to his lady. When they are alone, he pledges to
be faithful, and Cressida promises that even in the Greek camp, she will remain
true to him. Then Diomedes is brought in, and Troilus demands that he "use
her well...for, by the dreadful Pluto, if thou dost not, Though the great bulk
Achilles be thy guard, I'll cut thy throat (1.4.124-9). Diomedes retorts that
he will make no promises he will treat Cressida as she deserves, but not
because any Trojan prince orders him to. At that moment, a trumpet sounds,
calling them all to the Greek camp for the duel between Hector and Ajax.
Scene 5
In the Greek
camp, the newly arrived Cressida is greeted by all the Greek commanders.
Ulysses insists that she be kissed by everyone, only then refusing to kiss her
himself and when she is gone, he declares that she is a loose, unvirtuous
woman. Then the Trojan lords arrive, and the conditions of the duel are set by
Aeneas, who remarks that since Ajax and Hector are related, Hector's whole
heart will not be in this fight. As the two combatants prepare, Agamemnon asks
Ulysses “what Trojan is that same that looks so heavy“. Ulysses tells his
general that the downcast Trojan is Troilus, and then goes on to praise him
profusely, saying that Troilus may even be a greater man than Hector.
Act 5
Scene 1
Achilles
boasts to Patroclus how he will kill Hector. The two encounter Thersites, who
delivers a letter to Achilles, and then unloads his usual torrent of abuse on
them, calling Patroclus Achilles' male varlot, his 'masculine whore', and on
the entire campaign. The letter is from the Trojan princess, Polyxena, whom
Achilles loves, and it begs him not to fight the next day; he tells Patroclus
sadly that he must obey her wishes. They go out, and Thersites remains; he
watches from the shadows as the feast breaks up. Most of the lords go to bed,
but Diomedes slips off to see Cressida, and Ulysses and Troilus follow him.
Noting that Diomedes is an untrustworthy, lustful rogue, Thersites follows him
as well.
Scene 2
At Calchas's
tent, Diomedes calls to Cressida. Her father fetches her, while Troilus and
Ulysses watch from one hiding place and Thersites from another. With
Thersites's profanity and Troilus's shock providing a counterpoint, Diomedes
woos Cressida, who behaves reluctantly but coyly toward his advances, fending
him off for a time but never allowing him to leave. Eventually, she gives him a
sleeve that Troilus presented to her as a love-token then she takes it back,
and says that she never wants to see Diomedes again then she softens, gives it
to him once more, and promises to wait for him later, when he will come to
sleep with her. When she is gone, and Diomedes too, Troilus is in agony, first
denying the evidence seen with his own eyes, and then pledging to find Diomedes
on the field of battle and kill him. Finally, as morning nears, Aeneas arrives
to lead him back to Troy.
Scene 3
Hector girds
for battle, while the women, i.e. his wife, Andromache and his sister,
Cassandra plead with him not to go. Both have had dreams that prophesize his
death, but he dismisses their warnings. Troilus comes in and says that he will
be fighting too; indeed, he chides Hector for having been too merciful to his
enemies in the past, saying that today Troilus plans to slay as many men as he
can. Cassandra leads Priam in, and the old king pleads with his son not to
fight, saying that he too feels foreboding about this day, but Hector refuses
to listen and goes out to the battlefield. Pandarus brings Troilus a letter
from Cressida; Troilus tears it up and follows Hector out to the field.
Scene 4
As the battle
rages, Thersites wanders the field, escaping death by brazen cowardice.
Scene 5
Another part
of the plains, Agamemnon summarises the ways the Greeks are doing badly in the
battle, including that Doreus is taken prisoner and Patroclus probably slain.
Then Nestor enters and says that “There is a thousand Hectors in the field”.
The scene ends with Achilles asking where Hector is.
Scene 6
Troilus calls
Diomed as traitor for capturing his horse. Diomed, Ajax and Troilus Exit,
fighting.
Hector enters
and Achilles calls him proud Trojan. Then Hector sees a Greek in ornate armour
and pursues him.
Scene 7
In another
part of the plains. Menelaus and Paris enter the scene fighting. Thersites is
confronted by a bastard son of Priam, but declares that as he is himself a
bastard they have no business fighting each other.
Scene 8
Achilles and
his men find Hector, who has finished fighting and taken off his armour in order
to try on the golden armour of the warrior he has conquered. Surrounding the
unarmed Trojan, they stab him to death.
Scene 9
Agamenon,
Ajax, Menelaus, Nestor, Diomedes and others enter marching. Word arrives of the
death of Hector.
Scene 10
Left alone on
the stage, the unhappy Pandarus wonders why he should be so abused, when his
services were so eagerly desired only a little while before.
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